Adult Learning Theory
Adult Learning Theory
What is Adult Learning Theory?
Educators of adult learners are motivated by the desire to be effective in the classroom and search for strategies and methods of teaching adults that lead to eventual student success (Knowles, 1990). Adult education and the process of educating adults have important factors to consider including:
- Becoming a lifelong learner,
- Giving positive and frequent feedback,
- Understanding individual needs and a variety of learning styles,
- Involving the learner in the learning process, and
- Using a variety of teaching and instructional strategies to meet the learner’s needs.
Adult learning theory (Andragogy) refers to the practice of teaching and educating adults (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005). The evolution of andragogy can be traced to Germany’s Alexander Kapp in 1833 (Knowles et al.). Edward Lindeman (1926) first used the phrase andragogy in the United States in 1926. Other theorists who were both supportive and critical of the concept behind andragogy adopted the phrase in the United States in that same year (Cooper & Henschke, 2003). Andragogy was first researched and suggested as a theory in Europe.
However, in the United States, andragogy has become a leading theory of adult education. As with pedagogy, andragogy is a set of assumptions about adult learners that focuses on the role of a teacher as a facilitator for student-centered learning. Lindeman’s (1926) writings on adult education and the role of the teacher describe the need for the teacher to find a new function within the classroom. The teacher is no longer the oracle or sage within the adult leaner classroom because the teacher is a guide or facilitator who participates in the learning process.
Expanding on Lindeman, Knowles’ (1950) first attempt at describing the unique characteristics of adult learners began with the notion that adults learn best when they are in informal and comfortable surroundings. Knowles also acknowledged the need for flexibility and settings that are non-threatening to the learning process. Knowles’ first theory of andragogy included four assumptions about the design of learning:
Adults need self-direction in their learning,
- Adults need to learn experientially,
- Adults become ready to learn those things they need to know, and
- Adults approach learning as problem solving.
Based on these assumptions, Knowles recognized that adults are self-directed and want to take responsibility for their decisions. As Knowles continued his work with adults, two other assumptions were added to the original four:
- Adults need to know why they should learn something, (which later became the first assumption), and
- Adults need motivation to learn, which eventually became the sixth assumption (Knowles et al., 2005).
Andragogy’s premise is that instruction for adults needs to focus on the process of learning and less on the content being taught.
However, to fully understand the importance of adult learning theory, it is helpful to consider a brief history on the theory that is the basis for determining the six assumptions. Adult learning theory is based on constructivism (constructing your own knowledge based on prior experiences and knowledge). Contructivism can be traced back to the theories of Jean Piaget and more specifically on the Sociocultural Theory developed by Vygotsky. Vygotsky’s (1978) theory involves constructing new knowledge through social interactions. Constructing new knowledge through social interactions plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory provides a framework for constructing the new knowledge he called the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
Vygotsky understood the need for cognitive development and that cognitive development depends upon the ZPD. The Zone of Proximal Development “. . . is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The Zone of Proximal Development is the representation of learning that is possible if a student is surrounded by proper instructional conditions (Schunk, 2004). Vygotsky felt that “one’s interactions with the environment contribute to success in learning” (Schunk, p. 297).
Vygotsky focused on the relationship between learning and development. The relationship to pedagogy lies within the relationship between the student and the teacher. The relationship between student and teacher is based upon the ability of the teacher to match instructional strategies to the developmental capabilities of students. In a teacher-centered classroom, the teacher is the stimulus in the ZPD that “. . . captures those functions and abilities that have not yet matured, that are in the process of maturing, that can be accomplished only with assistance” (Tappan, 1998, p. 26). In a student-centered (adult learner) classroom, the student becomes the stimulus in the ZPD.
Adults are constantly exposed to organized instructional opportunities. Television, newspaper, radio, and several other advertising media are constantly recruiting adult learners to college programs. These colleges are targeting the adult learner and the challenge then becomes how important it is to the colleges and universities to design learning experiences for adult learners that meet their goals. The problem many educators and institutions are facing is determining the exact goals of the adult learner and what strategies work best (Cross, 1981). Incorporating these strategies into a practical setting becomes the challenge for many educators.